Latest Geography NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 8th to 12th)
8th				9th				10th				11th				12th

Class 11th Chapters
Fundamentals of Physical Geography
1. Geography As A Discipline	2. The Origin And Evolution Of The Earth	3. Interior Of The Earth
4. Distribution Of Oceans And Continents	5. Geomorphic Processes	6. Landforms And Their Evolution
7. Composition And Structure Of Atmosphere	8. Solar Radiation, Heat Balance And Temperature	9. Atmospheric Circulation And Weather Systems
10. Water In The Atmosphere	11. World Climate And Climate Change	12. Water (Oceans)
13. Movements Of Ocean Water	14. Biodiversity And Conservation
Indian Physical Environment
1. India — Location	2. Structure And Physiography	3. Drainage System
4. Climate	5. Natural Vegetation	6. Natural Hazards And Disasters: Causes, - Consequences And Management
Practical Work In Geography
1. Introduction To Maps	2. Map Scale	3. Latitude, Longitude And Time
4. Map Projections	5. Topographical Maps	6. Introduction To Remote Sensing

Chapter 5 Natural Vegetation

When we observe the plants and trees around us, we can differentiate between those that grow wild and those that have been planted and cared for by humans. **Natural vegetation** refers to a plant community that has been allowed to grow and develop without significant human interference over a long period. This allows the individual plant species to adapt fully to the prevailing climate and soil conditions of the area.

India exhibits a wide variety of natural vegetation types due to its diverse climate and soil conditions. From the temperate vegetation found at high altitudes in the Himalayas to the tropical rainforests of the Western Ghats and islands, the tropical forests and mangroves in delta regions, and the arid vegetation (cacti, thorny bushes) of the deserts, the vegetation changes significantly from one region to another.

Based on common characteristics, primarily the dominant vegetation type and the climatic conditions they are found in, Indian forests can be classified into five main groups:

Types Of Forests

Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen forests
Tropical Deciduous forests (Monsoon Forests)
Tropical Thorn forests
Montane forests (Mountain Forests)
Littoral and Swamp forests (Wetland and Mangrove Forests)

Tropical Evergreen And Semi Evergreen Forests

These forests are found in warm and very humid regions that receive heavy annual rainfall (over 200 cm) and have a high mean annual temperature (above $22^\circ\text{C}$). Key regions include the western slopes of the Western Ghats, the hills of the northeastern states, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. (Figure 5.1 shows an evergreen forest).

Photograph showing a dense, multi-layered tropical evergreen forest with tall trees.

**Tropical evergreen forests** are characterized by:

Being well-stratified, meaning they have distinct vertical layers of vegetation, from shrubs and creepers near the ground to tall trees reaching heights of 60 meters or more.
Trees do not shed their leaves all at the same time. Different species shed leaves at different times of the year, or not at all, giving the forest a continuously green appearance throughout the year.
They are incredibly rich in biodiversity.
Important species found here include hardwoods like rosewood, mahogany, aini, and ebony.

**Semi evergreen forests** are found in the slightly less rainy areas within these regions. They represent a transition between evergreen and deciduous forests, containing a mix of evergreen species and moist deciduous trees (trees that shed leaves seasonally). Undergrowth of climbers helps to maintain an evergreen appearance in these forests. Common species include white cedar, hollock, and kail.

During the British colonial period, the economic value of Indian forests was recognized, leading to extensive exploitation. The natural structure of forests was altered for commercial purposes, such as replacing native oak forests with commercially valuable pine trees (chirs) for railway construction or clearing land for plantations of tea, rubber, and coffee. Timber was also heavily used for construction, prioritizing commercial use over the protective and ecological functions of forests.

Tropical Deciduous Forests

Also known as **monsoon forests**, these are the most widespread forest type in India. They occur in regions that receive annual rainfall ranging between 70 cm and 200 cm. These forests are characterized by trees that shed their leaves seasonally, typically during the dry season (late winter/early summer) when moisture is scarce.

Based on the amount of rainfall, tropical deciduous forests are subdivided into:

**Moist Deciduous Forests:** Found in areas receiving rainfall between 100 cm and 200 cm. These are common in the northeastern states (along the Himalayan foothills), the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, and Odisha. Important species include commercially valuable trees like teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood.
**Dry Deciduous Forests:** Cover vast areas of the country with rainfall between 70 cm and 100 cm. These forests represent a transition zone; they border moist deciduous forests in wetter areas and thorn forests in drier areas. They are found in the rainier parts of the Peninsular plateau and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. In areas with higher rainfall within this zone, they can have a parkland appearance with scattered trees (like teak) interspersed with grassy patches. During the peak dry season, the trees shed their leaves completely, making the forest resemble a vast grassland with bare trees. Common trees include tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, and axlewood. Vegetation is very sparse in parts of western and southern Rajasthan due to low rainfall and excessive grazing. (Figure 5.3 shows deciduous forests).

Tropical Thorn Forests

These forests and scrub vegetation are found in areas receiving very low annual rainfall, typically less than 50 cm. They consist predominantly of grasses and scattered thorny trees and shrubs. Semi-arid regions of southwestern Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh are characterized by tropical thorn forests. Plants in these forests are adapted to survive in arid conditions; they often remain leafless for most of the year, giving the landscape a thorny, scrubby appearance. Important plant species include babool, ber, wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, and palas. A type of tussocky grass can grow up to 2 meters tall as undergrowth. (Figure 5.4 shows tropical thorn forests).

Photograph showing sparse vegetation with thorny trees and bushes typical of a dry, arid or semi-arid region.

Montane Forests

Montane forests are those found in mountainous regions where vegetation changes significantly with increasing altitude due to decreasing temperature (following the lapse rate) and changes in precipitation. These forests exhibit vertical zonation, similar to changes in vegetation with increasing latitude. Montane forests in India are broadly classified into Northern mountain forests (Himalayas) and Southern mountain forests (Peninsula). (Figure 5.5 shows montane forests).

Photograph showing forests on a mountain slope, illustrating changes in vegetation type with altitude, possibly coniferous forests at higher elevations.

In the **Himalayan ranges**, vegetation transitions with altitude:

**Foothills:** Deciduous forests are found here.
**1,000-2,000 m altitude:** Wet temperate forests are predominant, with evergreen broad-leaf trees like oak and chestnut in higher rainfall areas of the Northeast, West Bengal hills, and Uttarakhand.
**1,500-1,750 m altitude:** Pine forests become common, with Chir Pine being commercially important.
**Higher elevations:** Deodar, a valuable endemic timber species known for its durability in construction, is found mainly in the western Himalayas. Chinar and walnut trees, essential for Kashmir handicrafts, also grow in this zone.
**2,225-3,048 m altitude:** Blue pine and spruce trees appear. Temperate grasslands can also be found in many areas.
**3,000-4,000 m altitude:** Transition to Alpine forests and pastures. Trees include silver fir, junipers, pines, birch, and rhododendrons. These high-altitude pastures are extensively used by nomadic pastoral communities like the Gujjars, Bakarwals, Bhotiyas, and Gaddis for transhumance (seasonal migration with livestock).
**Higher altitudes:** Beyond the tree line, vegetation transitions to tundra type, consisting of mosses and lichens.

The southern slopes of the Himalayas generally have denser vegetation due to higher precipitation compared to the drier, north-facing slopes.

The **Southern mountain forests** are found in three main regions of Peninsular India: the Western Ghats, the Vindhyas, and the Nilgiris. Due to their location closer to the tropics, temperatures are not as low as in the high Himalayas. Vegetation zonation occurs with altitude:

**Lower regions (below $\sim 1,500$ m):** Subtropical vegetation.
**Higher regions ($\sim 1,500$ m and above):** Temperate vegetation. In the Nilgiris, Anaimalai, and Palani hills of the Western Ghats (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka), these temperate forests are specifically called **Sholas**. Economically important trees in these forests include magnolia, laurel, cinchona (source of quinine), and wattle. Similar types of forests are also found in the higher parts of the Satpura and Maikal ranges in Central India.

Littoral And Swamp Forests

India has significant **wetland habitats**, which support unique vegetation adapted to waterlogged or saline conditions. Approximately 70% of India's wetland area is under paddy cultivation. The total area of wetlands is about 3.9 million hectares. Some wetlands are internationally recognized for their importance for waterfowl, such as Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan), designated as Ramsar sites under the Convention of Wetlands of International Importance.

India's wetlands are diverse and can be grouped into eight categories (as listed in the text, covering reservoirs, lakes, saline expanses, deltas, marshes, floodplains, and island wetlands). A particularly important type of wetland forest is the **mangrove forest** (Figure 5.6). (This refers to Figure 5.6).

Photograph showing mangrove trees with characteristic prop roots growing in shallow water along a coastline.

**Mangroves** are salt-tolerant plant species that grow in intertidal zones along coasts, in salt marshes, tidal creeks, mudflats, and estuaries. They have adapted to survive in saline, oxygen-poor conditions with fluctuating water levels, often characterized by specialized roots (like prop roots and pneumatophores) that help them breathe and anchor in soft mud. These forests are crisscrossed by tidal creeks and provide important habitat for a wide variety of birds, fish, and other wildlife.

India has a significant area under mangrove forests, approximately 6,740 sq. km, which constitutes about 7% of the world's total mangrove area. The most extensive and highly developed mangrove forests in India are found in the **Andaman and Nicobar Islands** and the **Sunderbans** delta in West Bengal (part of the world's largest mangrove forest). Other important mangrove areas are located in the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari, and Krishna rivers on the east coast. These unique and ecologically vital forests face threats from encroachment and development and require conservation efforts.

An international convention is an agreement among member states of the United Nations to address specific global issues, like the conservation of wetlands or biodiversity.

Forest Conservation

Forests are intricately connected to life and the environment, providing numerous benefits that are essential for human society and economy. These include direct benefits like timber, fuelwood, food, and medicinal plants, as well as indirect benefits like soil conservation, water regulation, climate moderation, and habitat provision. Therefore, the **conservation of forests** is crucial for the survival and prosperity of humankind.

Recognizing the importance of forests, the Government of India has adopted national forest policies aimed at their conservation and sustainable management. The first post-independence forest policy was adopted in 1952 and was subsequently modified in 1988. The new forest policy emphasizes **sustainable forest management**, aiming to conserve existing forests, expand forest cover, and simultaneously meet the needs of local populations who depend on forests for their livelihoods.

The objectives of the forest policy include:

Increasing forest and tree cover to at least **33 percent** of the total geographical area of the country.
Maintaining **environmental stability** and restoring forest cover in areas where the ecological balance has been disturbed.
Conserving the country's **natural heritage**, including its biological diversity and genetic resources.
Controlling **soil erosion**, preventing the expansion of desert areas, and mitigating the impact of floods and droughts.
Increasing forest cover through programs like **social forestry** and afforestation on degraded lands.
Increasing the **productivity of forests** to ensure the availability of timber, fuel, fodder, and food for rural populations, while also promoting the use of alternative materials to reduce pressure on forests.
Creating a large-scale **people's movement**, particularly involving women, to encourage tree planting, prevent the illegal felling of trees, and reduce human pressure on existing forests.

For a large number of tribal communities in India, forests are more than just a resource; they are their home, their source of livelihood, and integral to their cultural identity. Forests provide them with food (fruits, leaves, honey, roots, wild game), materials for building homes, and items for their art and crafts. Tribal economies are closely linked to the forest, providing sustenance and livelihood. It is often believed that tribal communities traditionally live in harmony with nature and play a protective role for forests.

Given the close relationship between forests and tribal communities, their traditional knowledge about forestry practices can be invaluable for forest development and conservation. Instead of treating them solely as collectors of minor forest produce, they should be encouraged to participate actively in growing minor forest produce and involved in forest conservation efforts.

Based on the forest conservation policy, various strategies and programs have been initiated:

Social Forestry

**Social forestry** is a broad term that encompasses the management and protection of forests and the establishment of new forests (afforestation) on degraded or barren lands, with the primary goal of contributing to environmental, social, and rural development. The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) categorized social forestry into three types:

Urban Forestry

**Urban forestry** involves planting and managing trees in and around urban centers. This includes developing green belts, parks, planting trees along roadsides and railway lines, and creating green areas around industrial and commercial complexes. The purpose is to improve the urban environment, mitigate pollution, provide shade, and enhance aesthetics.

Rural Forestry

**Rural forestry** promotes the planting and management of trees in rural areas. Key components include:

**Agro-forestry:** Integrating trees with agricultural crops on the same land area, including on marginal or waste patches. This system combines forestry and agriculture to simultaneously produce food, fodder, fuel, timber, and fruit, providing multiple benefits to farmers.
**Community forestry:** Planting and managing trees on public or community-owned lands, such as village pastures, temple grounds, roadsides, canal banks, railway line strips, and school premises. The aim is to benefit the entire community, providing resources and employment opportunities, particularly for landless people.

Farm Forestry

**Farm forestry** refers to farmers growing trees on their own agricultural lands for commercial or non-commercial purposes. State Forest Departments often distribute free or subsidized tree seedlings to small and medium farmers to encourage this practice. Trees can be planted on agricultural field boundaries, in uncultivated corners, on grasslands and pastures, or around homes and cowsheds. While some farmers grow trees for timber or other commercial products, others plant them for shade, fuelwood, fodder, or environmental benefits.

Wildlife

India is home to a rich diversity of **wildlife**, encompassing a vast array of animal and bird species in their natural habitats. This wildlife is considered a great natural heritage. It is estimated that India is home to approximately 4-5 percent of all known plant and animal species on Earth. This remarkable biodiversity is a direct result of the great diversity of ecosystems and geographical conditions found in the country.

However, over the years, human activities have increasingly disturbed the habitats of wildlife, leading to a significant decline in their populations. Many species are now facing the threat of extinction.

Some of the major reasons for the decline in India's wildlife include:

**Habitat Loss and Fragmentation:** Clearing forests and grasslands for agriculture, human settlements, roads, mining, and building reservoirs destroys and breaks up natural habitats, making it difficult for wildlife to survive.
**Overexploitation:** Industrial and technological advancements have led to increased exploitation of forest resources (timber, etc.), impacting wildlife habitats.
**Pressure on Forests:** Local people's dependence on forests for fodder (lopping leaves), fuelwood, and small timber also puts pressure on the ecosystem.
**Overgrazing:** Grazing by domestic cattle in forest areas can degrade vegetation and negatively affect wildlife habitats.
**Hunting and Poaching:** Historically, hunting was a sport for the elite, leading to large-scale killing of wild animals. Today, commercial poaching for valuable animal products (like hides, tusks, horns) is a major threat to many species.
**Forest Fires:** Uncontrolled forest fires, often caused by human negligence, destroy habitats and kill wildlife.

There is a growing recognition of the importance of wildlife conservation, not only for its ecological value and as part of national and global heritage but also for promoting ecotourism. In response to the declining wildlife populations, the Indian government has initiated several steps for their conservation and protection.

Wildlife Conservation In India

Wildlife protection has deep roots in India's traditions and cultural narratives, reflected in ancient stories and texts that express reverence for animals. Legally, comprehensive efforts began in the late 20th century.

In 1972, a landmark **Wildlife (Protection) Act** was enacted. This act provides the primary legal framework for safeguarding and conserving wildlife throughout India. The main objectives of the Act are:

To provide legal protection to the species listed as endangered in the Act's schedules.
To provide legal support for establishing and managing **conservation areas**, such as National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Closed Areas.

The Act has been amended over time, notably in 1991, to make punishments for violations more stringent and to include provisions for protecting specific plant species and endangered wild animals. Currently, India has a network of **103 National Parks** and **563 Wildlife Sanctuaries** (as per the data cited in the text, though these numbers may vary with time). These protected areas are crucial for safeguarding habitats and populations of wild animals and plants.

Wildlife conservation is a broad field with immense potential benefits for humanity. Its success depends on individual awareness and contribution. The Government of India also collaborates with international initiatives like **UNESCO’s ‘Man and Biosphere Programme’ (MAB)** for effective conservation of flora and fauna.

Specialized projects targeting specific endangered species have been launched. Notable examples include:

**Project Tiger (launched 1973):** A flagship conservation program aimed at ensuring the long-term survival of viable tiger populations in India for their scientific, aesthetic, cultural, and ecological value. It seeks to preserve crucial tiger habitats. Initially launched in 9 tiger reserves, it has expanded to 50 reserves, covering significant core habitat areas across 18 states. As a result of these efforts, the tiger population in India has shown a significant increase, reaching 2,967 in 2020, representing about 70% of the global tiger population.
**Project Elephant (launched 1992):** Provides financial and technical support to states with wild elephant populations. Its goal is to ensure the long-term survival of viable elephant populations in their natural habitats. It is implemented in 16 states. (Figure 5.7 shows elephants in their habitat).

Other species-specific conservation projects undertaken by the government include the Crocodile Breeding Project, Project Hangul (for Kashmiri Stag), and efforts for the conservation of the Himalayan Musk Deer.

Biosphere Reserves

A **Biosphere Reserve (BR)** is a specially designated protected area that represents a unique and representative example of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems. These sites are recognized internationally within the framework of UNESCO's Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. Biosphere Reserves have a hierarchical zonation pattern with a highly protected core area, a buffer zone for research and ecotourism, and a transition zone for sustainable human activities. The aim is to balance the conservation of biodiversity and cultural heritage with sustainable development and research.

The objectives of a Biosphere Reserve are multifaceted (Figure 5.9):

Diagram illustrating the three main objectives of a Biosphere Reserve: Conservation (of landscapes, ecosystems, species, genetic variation), Development (fostering economic and human development that is socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable), and Logistic support (providing support for research, monitoring, education, and information exchange).

**Conservation:** Protecting landscapes, ecosystems, species, and genetic variation.
**Development:** Promoting economic development that is ecologically sustainable and socio-culturally appropriate for local communities.
**Logistic Support:** Providing areas and support for research, environmental monitoring, education, and information exchange related to conservation and sustainable development.

India has a network of **18 Biosphere Reserves** (Table 5.1, Figure 5.8). Out of these, **Eleven** have been internationally recognized and included in the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves. (Table 5.1 lists the Indian Biosphere Reserves, and Figure 5.8 shows their locations on a map of India).

Sl. No.	Name of the Biosphere Reserve and Total Geographical Area (km²)	Date of Designation	Location in the States/UT
1.	Nilgiri (5520)	01.08.1986	Part of Wynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and Siruvani Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka).
2.	Nanda Devi (5860.69)	18.01.1988	Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Almora Districts in Uttarakhand.
3.	Nokrek (820)	01.09.1988	Part of East, West and South Garo Hill Districts in Meghalaya.
4.	Manas (2837)	14.03.1989	Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamrup and Darang Districts in Assam.
5.	Sunderban (9630)	29.03.1989	Part of delta of Ganges and Brahamaputra river system in West Bengal.
6.	Gulf of Mannar (10500)	18.02.1989	Indian part of Gulf of Mannar extending from Rameswaram island in the North to Kaniyakumari in the South of Tamil Nadu.
7.	Great Nicobar (885)	06.01.1989	Southernmost island of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
8.	Similipal (4374)	21.06.1994	Part of Mayurbhanj District in Odisha.
9.	Dibru-Saikhowa (765)	28.07.1997	Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts in Assam.
10.	Dehang Debang (5111.5)	02.09.1998	Part of Upper Siang, West Siang and Dibang Valley Districts in Arunachal Pradesh.
11.	Pachmarhi (4981.72)	03.03.1999	Part of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chhindwara Districts in Madhya Pradesh.
12.	Khangchendzonga (2619.92)	07.02.2000	Part of North and West Districts in Sikkim.
13.	Agasthyamalai (3500.36)	12.11.2001	Part of Thirunelveli and Kanyakumari Districts in Tamil Nadu and Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam and Pathanmthitta districts in Kerala.
14.	Achanakmar-Amarkantak (3835.51)	30.03.2005	Part of Anuppur and Dindori Districts of Madhya Pradesh and Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh.
15.	Kachchh (12,454)	29.01.2008	Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendranagar and Patan Districts in Gujarat.
16.	Cold Desert (7770)	28.08.2009	Pin Valley National Park and surroundings; Chandratal and Sarchu and Kibber Wildlife sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh.
17.	Seshachalam (4755.997)	20.09.2010	Seshachalam hill ranges in Eastern Ghats encompassing part of Chittoor and Kadapa Districts in Andhra Pradesh.
18.	Panna (2998.98)	25.08.2011	Part of Panna and Chhattarpur Districts in Madhya Pradesh.

Map of India showing the locations of the 18 Biosphere Reserves.

The list of Biosphere Reserves (Table 5.1) indicates which ones are included in the World Network of BRs (marked in bold in the provided text). There are 11 such sites listed in bold in the text's table.

Exercises

Multiple Choice Questions

(Exercise questions are not included as per instructions.)

Answer The Following Questions In About 30 Words

(Exercise questions are not included as per instructions.)

Answer The Following Questions In Not More Than 150 Words

(Exercise questions are not included as per instructions.)

Project/Activity

(Project/Activity descriptions are not included as per instructions.)